Its foundations were laid much earlier, at a time when microorganisms were not yet fully understood and air could not be analyzed using modern instruments. Yet, in the story of the development of air hygiene, two days in August symbolically connect three pioneers of this field.

Two Days in August That Changed the History of Medicine

The history of medicine is filled with remarkable discoveries. It is rare, however, for just two days on the calendar to connect three individuals whose work would fundamentally change the way we think about health, hospital hygiene, and the environments in which patients are treated.

In the history of medicine, 12 and 13 August symbolically unite three people who probably never considered themselves part of the same story and whose lives never crossed.

Each of them addressed a different problem. One focused on the hospital environment. Another studied the transmission of disease. The third transformed surgical practice. Today, we know that each of them, in his or her own way, contributed to the understanding of what we now call air hygiene.

Air Hygiene and the Beginning of Antiseptic Surgery

On 12 August 1865, the Scottish surgeon Joseph Lister performed an operation on an eleven-year-old boy using an antiseptic technique. The boy had suffered a severe compound fracture of his leg. At that time, injuries of this kind almost invariably resulted in amputation or death from infection.

Lister’s antiseptic procedure proved successful. The boy recovered, and this event marked the beginning of a new era in surgery. It was a turning point that would soon confirm that the observations of Ignaz Semmelweis had been far ahead of their time.

Lister subsequently extended his antiseptic approach to wounds, surgical instruments, the operating field, and even the air within the operating theatre. The spraying of carbolic acid represented the first documented attempt at chemical air disinfection in the history of medicine.

A Profound Historical Injustice

Only one day later, on 13 August 1865, Ignaz Semmelweis died.

The man who had spent years trying to convince his colleagues that simple hand hygiene could save thousands of lives did not live to see medical practice confirm the fundamental principle for which he had fought. The irony of history was even greater: he died of a systemic infection – the very condition against which he had devoted most of his professional life.

Exactly forty-five years later, on 13 August 1910, Florence Nightingale also passed away.

Thus, just two dates on the calendar symbolically connect three pioneers whose ideas continue to shape the way we think about hygiene, infection prevention, and the quality of the hospital environment.

Three Different Paths Toward the Same Goal

At first glance, Joseph Lister, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Florence Nightingale worked in completely different fields.

Their methods differed, as did the problems they sought to solve. Even their conclusions were reached under entirely different circumstances. Yet all three were trying to answer the same question: What can we change in the patient’s environment to save more lives?

Today, this question seems perfectly natural. In the mid-nineteenth century, it was revolutionary.

1. Joseph Lister – When Theory Became Practice

Unlike Florence Nightingale and Ignaz Semmelweis, Joseph Lister was not primarily known for statistical analyses. His greatest contribution was transforming emerging scientific knowledge into practical medicine.

Inspired by Louis Pasteur’s work on microorganisms, Lister concluded that infection was not an inevitable consequence of surgery. If microorganisms could be prevented from entering a wound, infection could also be prevented.

He began using carbolic acid to antiseptically treat wounds, surgical instruments, and the operating field. Later, he even attempted to disinfect the air by spraying carbolic acid throughout the operating theatre.

From today’s perspective, it is clear that this was not the ultimate solution. Nevertheless, it represented the first serious effort to regard the air in a healthcare environment as a factor capable of influencing clinical outcomes.

Lister did more than embrace a new scientific concept. He demonstrated that it could be successfully applied in everyday medical practice.

SEE ALSO: Lord Lister and the First Chemical Air Disinfection

2. Ignaz Semmelweis – When the Numbers Spoke

While Florence Nightingale was studying the hospital environment, Ignaz Semmelweis was trying to understand why maternal mortality was dramatically higher in one maternity ward than in another.

He did not begin with a theory but with careful observation and analysis of numerical data. He compared outcomes, searched for differences, and rejected assumptions that were inconsistent with the evidence. After introducing mandatory hand disinfection, maternal mortality declined dramatically.

Today, hand washing seems self-evident. However, in the middle of the nineteenth century, it represented one of the greatest revolutions in the history of medicine.

Semmelweis had no access to modern microbiology. He could not measure aerosols. He knew nothing about PM₂.₅, VOCs, or HEPA filtration. Yet he understood something far more fundamental. He reached a conclusion that would permanently change medical practice: The chain of disease transmission can be broken.

That principle remains just as important today.

SEE ALSO: Ignaz Semmelweis: The Savior of Mothers and Newborns

3. Florence Nightingale – When the Hospital Became Part of the Treatment

Florence Nightingale did not view the hospital merely as a place where patients were treated. She regarded it as an integral part of the healing process itself.

During the Crimean War, she encountered overcrowded hospital wards, inadequate ventilation, poor sanitary conditions, insufficient natural light, and inefficient organization of care. Rather than accepting these conditions as inevitable, she began to observe, record, and compare the outcomes.

She did not believe assumptions. She believed data. Her statistical analyses demonstrated that improvements in sanitary conditions – including better ventilation and access to fresh air – were accompanied by a significant reduction in mortality.

At a time when the role of microorganisms was only beginning to be understood, Florence Nightingale demonstrated that the environment surrounding the patient could have a decisive influence on treatment outcomes.

SEE ALSO: Florence Nightingale’s Lamp Brings a Glimmer of Hope

What Truly Connected These Three Pioneers?

Their contributions to hygiene and the hospital environment took different forms:

•   Lister transformed surgical practice.
•   Semmelweis interrupted the transmission of infection through hand hygiene.
•   Nightingale transformed the entire hospital environment.

What united them was their way of thinking. They noticed what others overlooked, measured outcomes, and trusted evidence more than established beliefs. Then, based on those findings, they changed medical practice.

This is precisely how modern air hygiene solutions are developed today.

The process does not begin with the assumption that a particular technology is the best. It begins with the problem itself – with understanding the sources of contamination, the potential routes of transmission, and the desired outcome. Only then is the appropriate solution selected.

Air Hygiene Today

Since the time of these pioneers, medicine has made extraordinary progress. International cleanroom standards have been established. Ventilation systems have become increasingly sophisticated. High-efficiency filtration, indoor air quality monitoring, and numerous technologies for further improving air quality have been developed.

Today, air hygiene is no longer limited to reducing the presence of microorganisms.

It encompasses the control of airborne particles, chemical pollutants, and unpleasant odors; the provision of appropriate ventilation and airflow patterns; and the prevention of unwanted pathways of contamination between different areas.

The COVID-19 pandemic served as a historic reminder that air is more than simply the medium in which we exist. Under certain conditions, it can also become an important route for the transmission of infectious aerosols.

At the same time, numerous scientific studies have further highlighted the importance of air quality for overall health, including respiratory diseases, cardiovascular health, mental well-being, reproductive health, and many other aspects of human health.

Examples from Contemporary Practice

Today, these historical lessons have very practical applications.

For more than three decades, Marquis Intelligence has participated in the design and implementation of air quality improvement solutions across a wide range of facilities, including healthcare institutions.

These projects include the Institute for Cardiovascular Diseases of Vojvodina in Sremska Kamenica, the Clinical Centre of Vojvodina in Novi Sad, the Institute of Public Health of Montenegro in Podgorica, as well as numerous other public and private healthcare facilities.

Interestingly, the implementation of one of the advanced air treatment technologies in healthcare facilities began with education.

From Education to Practical Implementation

During a professional presentation organized by Marquis Intelligence on advanced technologies for improving air hygiene, a consulting engineer involved in the design of the Clinical Centre of Vojvodina attended the event.

Interested in the potential application of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) technology within ventilation systems, he invited the Marquis Intelligence engineering team to deliver an additional presentation at his design office. Shortly thereafter, another presentation was organized for representatives of the healthcare institution itself.

Following the official opinion issued by the competent professional authority, a decision was made to implement this technology within the central ventilation systems of the new hospital building.

The journey from a new idea to its practical application has changed very little over the past century and a half.

Even today, progress depends on professional dialogue, scientific evidence, openness to new knowledge, and the willingness to improve established practice.

SEE ALSO: Mini Case Study: Impeccably Clean Air in a Hospital in Novi Sad

Today, We Continue to Ask the Same Question

Florence Nightingale, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Joseph Lister did not have access to modern instruments. They could not measure PM₂.₅ concentrations or monitor indoor air quality in real time. High-efficiency filtration systems and international cleanroom standards did not yet exist.

Nevertheless, they possessed what remains the foundation of all serious science and engineering:

•   they observed carefully;
•   they asked questions;
•   they monitored the results;
•   they changed practice when evidence demonstrated that a better solution existed.

Perhaps that is precisely why the symbolism of 12 and 13 August remains so powerful.

Within the span of just two days on the calendar, history forever linked three individuals who demonstrated that health depends not only on the medicine we practice, but also on the environments we create.

At Marquis Intelligence, we continue to work according to the same principle.

It is not enough simply to deliver air into a room. We must understand how it behaves, how it moves, and how it affects the people who breathe it.

Perhaps this is the most enduring message shared by Florence Nightingale, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Joseph Lister.

This article is part of the “Learn More About Air Through History and the People Who Shaped It” series from the Marquis Intelligence Archive.Document ID: MI-LAH-013.26 – Air Hygiene: Three Pioneers, Two Days, and One Goal

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That is why the answer to the question of the best quote about air lies not in one sentence, but in how our understanding of air has evolved over time—and how we perceive its importance today.

Air as a Condition for Health – Ancient Perspectives

 The connection between air and health was recognized as early as ancient medicine.

“Some diseases are produced by the manner of life that is followed; others by the air we breathe.”
– Hippocrates, the father of medicine

This ancient thought still carries weight today- especially after global experiences such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder viewed air as a fundamental element of nature. Pliny the Younger, describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, showed that air can also carry danger.

The topic has remained relevant – and today, it is more urgent than ever.

Air as Part of Everyday Life

In the past, children grew up in fresh air, strengthening their health through time spent outdoors. Today, many children spend most of their time indoors, often exposed to air that is far from optimal. Unfortunately, outdoor air is often unhealthy as well. That is why the following quote remains particularly relevant:

“Some old-fashioned things like fresh air and sunshine are hard to beat.”

– Laura Ingalls Wilder, American author

Air as Medicine

Yes – clean air can be considered a form of medicine, in a broader sense. It supports recovery and helps prevent a wide range of diseases. The following quote may surprise you:

“The doctor of the future will give no medicine, but will involve the patient in the proper use of food, fresh air and exercise.”

– Thomas Edison, American inventor and innovator

More than a century later, this idea feels remarkably modern. Scientific research increasingly confirms how forward-thinking it was.

There are also claims that Albert Einstein reflected on the healing properties of Alpine air while his sister was being treated for tuberculosis in a sanatorium. However, no reliable sources have been found to confirm this explicitly.

Air as a Natural Resource and a Global Issue

Air is a natural resource that knows no borders. We all breathe it – but how healthy is it?

Unfortunately, data from the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations (UN) show that 99% of people breathe outdoor air that does not meet health standards.

At the same time, we inhale approximately 12,000 liters of air per day, which further highlights the importance of this issue.

It is alarming that around 2,000 children under the age of five die every day due to air pollution.

In this context, the following quotes take on even greater meaning:

“Our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this planet. We all breathe the same air. We all cherish our children’s future. And we are all mortal.”

– John F. Kennedy, President of the United States

“Water and air, the two essential fluids on which all life depends, have become global garbage cans.”

– Jacques-Yves Cousteau, explorer and oceanographer

“We’ve got to pause and ask ourselves: How much clean air do we need?”

– Lee Iacocca, American industrialist

The 19th Century – A Turning Point in Understanding Air

In the 19th century, the understanding of air gained a new dimension. Air began to be recognized as a key factor of health in indoor environments.

“The first canon of nursing… is to keep the air he breathes as pure as the external air.”

– Florence Nightingale, pioneer of modern nursing

>> SEE ALSO: Clean Air Heals: Florence Nightingale

“If there is a difference between the air of the city and that of the country, it lies not in its chemical composition, but in its physical properties.”

– Max von Pettenkofer, pioneer of modern hygiene and air quality research

>> SEE ALSO: Pettenkofer’s Number – CO₂ and Indoor Air Quality

These two perspectives – medical and engineering – laid the foundations for today’s understanding of air quality.

Modern Science: Air as a Subject of Research

Today, air is no longer seen only as a natural element, but as a measurable and controllable factor of health.

The work of Lidia Morawska highlights the importance of airborne disease transmission in indoor environments.

Pawel Wargocki has shown that indoor air quality directly affects human health and productivity.

“The people who design, operate, and maintain our buildings have a bigger impact on our health than our doctors.”

– Joseph Allen, Harvard University professor and director of the Healthy Buildings program

A Contemporary Digression

At Marquis Intelligence, air is a constant subject of research and discussion. A few years ago, after searching for terms like “quote about air,” “best quote about air,” and similar phrases, the team decided to ask artificial intelligence.

The prompt given to ChatGPT was: “What is the best quote about air?” The response was surprisingly rich-filled with inspiring sentences not found elsewhere online. However, the authors of those quotes were not listed.

When asked, “Who said that?”, the answer was simple: “I did.”

Today, quotes no longer come only from history. They are also created in real time.

What Is Air, Actually?

In scientific terms, air is a mixture of gases that make up Earth’s atmosphere – primarily nitrogen (~78%) and oxygen (~21%), with smaller amounts of other gases.

But in a broader sense, air is:

• a condition for life
• a factor of health
• a medium for energy and matter transfer

Physical Characteristics of Air – More Than Gas Composition

Air quality is not determined solely by its chemical composition.

Important factors include temperature, relative and absolute humidity, airflow, particle and pollutant content, and even electrical properties.

One often overlooked aspect is the ionic composition of air.

In natural environments, air is rich in ions. In urban and indoor environments, this balance is often disrupted – affecting perception and overall comfort.

What Is Air Like Today?

Today, air is no longer just a natural resource – it is also a carrier of pollution.

The presence of particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides, and ozone is associated with numerous health problems, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

That is why air is no longer just a philosophical question. It is a matter of health, technology, and survival.

What Does Marquis Intelligence Say About Air?

In modern conditions, indoor air must be viewed as a system.

Its quality depends on outdoor air characteristics, ventilation, filtration, parameter control, system regulation, and subtle factors such as ionic balance.

In the Marquis Intelligence approach, air is not a passive element, but an active factor shaping health, comfort, and the value of space.

Conclusion

From Hippocrates to modern researchers, air remains a constant connecting life and health.

Perhaps the answer to the question of the best quote about air is not a single sentence – but a simple idea:

Better air means a better life.

Sources

• https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7155129095486423040
• https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7161354963409903616
• https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7190829743347286016
• https://www.facebook.com/share/p/18J7Wu9swZ/
• https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7313102484808327170
• https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7427260414846980096

This text is part of the series “Learn more about air through history and people” from the archives of Marquis Intelligence.
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However, other approaches exist, such as chemical and thermal air disinfection.

What Were Surgical Conditions Like in the Mid-19th Century?

In the mid-19th century, surgical procedures looked nothing like they do today.

Patients lay on simple beds, far from the standards we now take for granted. Surgeons operated in their everyday clothes. They wore no gowns, let alone gloves or masks.

Modern dressings did not exist.

Operating rooms had wooden platforms surrounded by seating areas. The audience often consisted of medical students observing procedures up close.

In such conditions, infections were not the exception. They were frequent and often fatal.

The Beginning of Understanding the Problem

At that time, medicine began to change direction.

Ignaz Semmelweis demonstrated that hand hygiene could drastically reduce mortality. At the same time, Louis Pasteur proved that microorganisms cause decay and disease.

SEE ALSO: Ignaz Semmelweis – The Savior of Mothers and Newborns

These insights paved the way for a new way of thinking. Joseph Lister was the first to connect these ideas and apply them to surgery.

Who Was Joseph Lister?

Joseph Lister, known as Lord Lister, was born on April 5, 1827, in England, into a family of scientists. His father was a pioneer in improving the microscope. So, Lister grew up in a stimulating scientific environment.

As a surgeon in Glasgow, Lister was the first to connect new knowledge about microorganisms with medical practice and to develop the principles of antiseptic surgery. His work marked a turning point in medicine.

He showed that hygiene, including air control, can determine treatment outcomes.

What Was the First Attempt at Air Disinfection?

Joseph Lister introduced the use of carbolic acid (phenol) to disinfect wounds, instruments, and surgeons’ hands.

But what about air?

Unlike modern systems that rely on filtration and physical separation of particles and microorganisms, his approach relied on chemical disinfection of the air. In 1867, Lord Lister began using a spray device to disperse carbolic acid into the air of the operating room, more precisely, the operating theater. This marked the first recorded attempt in history to maintain hospital air cleanliness through chemical disinfection.

For the first time, air was recognized as a factor that could determine the outcome of treatment.

The Boy Who Changed the Course of Surgery

One of the first patients in the Glasgow hospital where Lister applied his method was an eleven-year-old boy with a severe open leg fracture. At the time, such an injury almost certainly led to amputation and carried a high risk of death.

Lister applied his method in full:

• He treated the wound with carbolic acid,
• Disinfection of instruments and hands, and
• Chemical air disinfection.

The result was remarkable. The wound healed without infection, and the boy recovered.

This case marked the beginning of a new era in medicine and in air hygiene.

From the First Attempt to Modern Systems

That first step in hospital hygiene, chemical air disinfection, was small in scale but enormous in impact.

Over time, however, the focus shifted toward air filtration systems based on the mechanical removal of particles and microorganisms. The first cleanroom standard was introduced in the United States in 1961, followed by the first European standard in 1983.

Today, ISO 14644 defines the requirements for controlled environments, commonly known as cleanrooms.

Modern Approaches to Air Quality Control

Today, air quality is primarily ensured through filtration. Chemical air disinfection is less commonly used in standard ventilation systems, but it still has a role in specific conditions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there were attempts to disinfect air in general ventilation systems by dispersing hydrogen peroxide.

At the same time, additional technologies are increasingly used to improve air quality. While the public is generally familiar with HEPA filters and UV lamps, these are not the only modern methods.

Bipolar air ionization is also widely used to improve air and surface hygiene. This technology is applied in:

• hospitals,
• semiconductor manufacturing,
• the electronics industry.

In industry, it is also used to control static electricity, which can damage sensitive components.

In healthcare, it helps reduce airborne microorganisms.

SEE ALSO: Bipolar Air Ionization

What Does This Mean in Practice Today?

Historical lessons have not remained confined to medical textbooks. They are directly applied today in the design and improvement of modern ventilation and air quality systems.

Marquis Intelligence builds its work on these very principles.

In healthcare facilities and in other buildings with high requirements, air control involves much more than filtration alone.

In some projects, the Marquis Intelligence team has identified critical shortcomings in ventilation system design. One such case involved connecting zones with entirely different hygiene requirements to the same air handling system – solutions that can pose serious risks.

Through expert analysis and a systematic approach, such issues are identified and corrected in a timely manner.

SEE ALSO: Mini Case Study – Impeccably Clean Air in a Hospital in Novi Sad

Air Control as a Responsibility

Lord Lister (1827–1912) made the first attempt at chemical air disinfection. Today, we have technologies that allow us to control air quality.

In other words, what was once an experiment is now the foundation of modern air-quality-control technologies.

Marquis Intelligence connects historical knowledge with modern technologies, creating solutions that meet the highest contemporary standards.

References

• Ramstorp, M. (2000). Introduction to Contamination Control and Cleanroom Technology. Wiley-VCH
• Carlberg, D. M. (2004). Cleanroom Microbiology for the Non-Microbiologist. CRC Press
• ISO 14644 – Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments
• Encyclopedia Britannica – Joseph Lister

This text is part of the “Learn More About Air Through History and People” series from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
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The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997. However, it entered into force only on February 16, 2005. For the first time, signatory countries accepted legally binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

The First Global Environmental Conference: The Beginning

Global environmental awareness began with the first United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in June 1972. The Stockholm Declaration was adopted there, initiating a global dialogue on the relationship between economic growth and pollution of air, water, and soil for the benefit of humanity. An Action Plan was also adopted.

The most significant outcome of the conference was the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

How Did Global CO₂ Emission Control Begin?

The story began with the adoption of the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) at the Rio Summit in 1992. However, it was only with the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol that the era of operational emission control began.

For the system to function, more than political will was required:

• A precise methodology for calculating emissions
• National registries
• International oversight
• Verification of transactions

CO₂ emissions were no longer just statistical data. They became part of a global infrastructure of accountability.

The Kyoto Protocol: A Turning Point for CO₂ Emissions

The Kyoto Protocol operationalized the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which had set the objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations. Kyoto introduced concrete, binding emission quotas for developed countries.

During the 2008 – 2012 period, emissions of CO₂ and other greenhouse gases were to be reduced on average by 5% compared to 1990 levels. For the first time, CO₂ emissions became a measurable, monitored, comparable, and – most importantly – sanctionable value if limits were exceeded.

Kyoto also introduced the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities,” recognizing that developed countries had historically contributed the most to the increase of CO₂ emissions in the atmosphere.

What Are Emission Units?

This is the point where confusion often arises – emission units. In simple terms, an emission unit represents the right to emit a certain amount of greenhouse gases. Most commonly, this equals one metric ton of CO₂ or an equivalent amount of other greenhouse gases (CO₂e), converted accordingly.

Under the Kyoto Protocol, countries were allocated specific quantities of emission units. If a country emitted less CO₂ than permitted, it could sell surplus emission units to another country that had exceeded its limit. This created a new international market.

Emission units became both an instrument for achieving global CO₂ reduction and a tradable commodity.

Why Was the Kyoto Transaction Log (ITL) System Crucial?

The Kyoto Transaction Log (ITL) was a central electronic system that verified and recorded international transactions of emission units.

When a country bought or sold emission units, the ITL verified whether the transaction complied with established rules. In other words, the ITL acted as the digital guardian of system integrity.

Without it, CO₂ emissions trading would not have had credibility. Without measurement and records, CO₂ emissions could not have been effectively reduced.

Official Termination of the ITL System

According to official data, the ITL system will cease operations on March 31 this year. Its shutdown does not mean the end of the Kyoto Protocol. However, it does signify the end of its original market infrastructure.

The Paris Agreement now assumes the central role in global climate policy.

The shutdown of the ITL symbolically closes an era in which global CO₂ emissions were, for the first time, systematically monitored through a binding international trading regime.

CO₂ Emissions from Buildings: Why They Matter

While international emission monitoring systems evolve, the fundamental issue remains the same. CO₂ emissions continue to rise in many parts of the world.

Did you know that buildings account for approximately 40% of global energy consumption? When this includes heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, domestic hot water preparation, elevators, water and sewage pumps, and other energy consumers, it becomes clear how energy-intensive the building sector is.

If indirect emissions are included – production of construction materials, transport, and system installation – the total contribution of the building sector to CO₂ emissions becomes even higher.

If Buildings Are Part of the Problem, They Must Be Part of the Solution

Due to the significant contribution of the building sector, the European Union adopted a new version of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD). It sets more ambitious targets for reducing energy consumption and CO₂ emissions, while also emphasizing the creation of healthy indoor air environments.

SEE ALSO:EPBD: Energy-Efficient Buildings Need Healthy Indoor Air

Residential Buildings: A Major Opportunity for Emission Reduction

Residential buildings are spaces where people spend most of their lives. This is where CO₂ emissions, energy consumption, and indoor air quality become daily realities — but also major opportunities for savings.

Modern systems now integrate ventilation, energy efficiency, and sensor-based monitoring into a unified framework. When ventilation operates according to actual occupancy and load, and energy is not wasted unnecessarily, CO₂ emissions associated with building operation can be significantly reduced.

Interestingly, indoor CO₂ is also used as an indicator of air freshness and ventilation performance.

SEE ALSO: The Pettenkofer Number – CO₂ and Indoor Air Quality

The Next Step After Global Climate Policy

Global climate policies have taught us how to define CO₂ emissions. The next step is reducing them within buildings.

Although one international system is being shut down, the need for responsible greenhouse gas emission management remains. CO₂ emissions have not disappeared. However, the way we approach them must become more precise, localized, and technologically advanced than ever before.

Today, with sensor-based monitoring and data analytics, systems no longer react only to preset parameters. They learn occupancy patterns, adjust ventilation to actual air load, and optimize energy consumption without compromising air quality.

Marquis Intelligence: From Global Frameworks to Healthy Air in Practice

Climate policy cannot exist without measurement, monitoring, and operational solutions.

Today, in the post-ITL era, the same principle becomes equally important at the local level – inside buildings.

This is where climate goals become tangible: in the quality of the air people breathe, in system energy efficiency, and in how buildings operate day by day.

At Marquis Intelligence, we believe that CO₂ emissions and sustainability are not merely global topics, but engineering challenges solved through concrete solutions:

• Intelligent ventilation with highly energy-efficient heat recovery
• Precise energy consumption management
• Continuous indoor air quality monitoring
• Systems that integrate health, comfort, and sustainability

SEE ALSO: Residential Ventilation by Marquis Intelligence

If buildings are part of the problem, they must become part of the solution.

And that solution begins precisely where climate strategy becomes tangible: in the spaces where we live, work, and breathe.

Sources

• https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement-overview
• https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-kyoto-protocol
• https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/stockholm1972

This text is part of the series “Learn More About Air Through History and People” from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
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CO₂ is not considered an air pollutant in the classical sense. At typical concentrations, it is not toxic. Nevertheless, its concentration is an important indicator of indoor air quality and ventilation efficiency.

The topic of CO₂ and air quality may seem ultra-modern. However, it is not new. As early as the 19th century, Max von Pettenkofer demonstrated that CO₂ concentration could serve as an indicator of indoor air quality.

This text is dedicated to Max von Pettenkofer on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of his death, in remembrance of his key contribution to understanding the relationship between CO₂ concentration and indoor air quality.

Air Quality and Health Before Max von Pettenkofer

We cannot see air, but we breathe it continuously. It is a fundamental prerequisite for life, health, and everyday functioning.

As something invisible and difficult to explain, air has always been the subject of reflection by philosophers, physicians, and scientists. Hippocrates pointed out that human health also depends on the environment in which one lives. Pliny the Elder warned that air can become a medium that threatens life.

Questions related to air accumulated and multiplied over centuries. In the 19th century, they began to receive scientific, measurable answers.

Pettenkofer’s Contemporaries: Air and Health in the 19th Century

Pettenkofer was not the only one thinking about the connection between air and health in the 19th century. His era was a period of major changes in medicine and public health.

In the 19th century, Florence Nightingale, Ignaz Semmelweis, and Joseph Lister demonstrated how environmental conditions, hygiene, and infection prevention could save lives.

In this context, Pettenkofer’s idea that air could be measured and controlled became part of a broader historical shift. Health thus began to be viewed as a matter of space, not just of the individual.

See also: Clean Air Heals: Florence Nightingale
See also: Ignaz Semmelweis: Savior of Mothers and Newborns

Max von Pettenkofer and Modern Hygiene

Max von Pettenkofer (1818–1901) belonged to the scientific elite of his time and is considered one of the founders of modern hygiene.

His key idea was that health is not only a matter of treatment, but also of living conditions. He was particularly interested in how space, water, and air affect human health.

Pettenkofer was among the first to demonstrate that indoor air quality could be regarded as an objective, measurable category. This marked a significant shift in understanding the relationship between space, health, and science.

CO₂ Concentration Levels and Air Quality: Pettenkofer’s Number

The concentration of CO₂ in outdoor air is typically around 350–450 ppm. Indoors, however, CO₂ levels are usually higher.

According to expert publications of the Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Associations (REHVA), CO₂ concentration is considered the leading parameter for assessing indoor air quality and ventilation levels.

• 600–800 ppm is considered a range of reliable indoor air quality.
• Around 1,000 ppm represents the upper limit of acceptable indoor air quality and is known as Pettenkofer’s number, as he defined it.
• Up to 5,000 ppm is the maximum permitted average concentration in the workplace during an eight-hour exposure.
• Between 6,000 and 30,000 ppm, concentrations become critical to human health and are acceptable only for short-term exposure.

Guidelines of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommend an average eight-hour CO₂ exposure limit of 5,000 ppm. Concentrations of 40,000 ppm and above are considered immediately dangerous to life and health.

SEE ALSO: CO₂ in Your Home – Is It There and Where Does It Actually Come From

How the Human Body Responds to Elevated CO₂ Concentrations

The human body reacts to increased CO₂ concentrations.

At CO₂ levels between 3% and 8%, breathing accelerates, headaches occur, and a pronounced feeling of discomfort develops. At concentrations above 10%, nausea, vomiting, and loss of consciousness may occur.

Concentrations above 20% lead to rapid loss of consciousness and pose a risk of fatal outcomes. Therefore, CO₂ is not only an indicator of ventilation but also an important safety parameter in indoor environments.

Sources of CO₂ Indoors

The dominant source of indoor CO₂ is people themselves. Through the physiological process of breathing, humans emit carbon dioxide. As a result, CO₂ concentration increases proportionally to the number of occupants and the duration of stay indoors.

• CO₂ levels may also increase due to:
• indoor plants, which release CO₂ at night, although this effect is relatively small under typical conditions,
• cooking and the use of gas appliances,
• gas or solid-fuel heating,
• candles, fireplaces, and smoking indoors, among others.

Where Are We Most Exposed to Elevated CO₂ Levels?

When discussing elevated CO₂ concentrations, classrooms, offices, and meeting rooms are most often mentioned. These are spaces with many occupants and often insufficient ventilation.

However, one space is frequently overlooked, even though we spend the most time there: the bedroom.

At night, windows are usually closed. Air exchange is minimal, and CO₂ gradually accumulates. According to some scientific studies, its concentration can reach several thousand ppm overnight. As a result, people often wake up feeling tired, even after sufficient sleep.

In modern, energy-efficient buildings, windows are tightly sealed. Air infiltration is minimal, and air exchange is often insufficient, causing CO₂ to accumulate relatively quickly.

At the same time, natural ventilation by opening windows is not always a solution, especially in urban environments where outdoor air is polluted.

Can Air Purifiers Help Reduce CO₂?

Air purifiers have become widespread, especially since the Covid-19 pandemic. They can play an important role in improving air quality by effectively removing particles, dust, pollen, smoke, and certain pollutants.

However, CO₂ is a gas produced by breathing and cannot be removed by standard filters. The same applies to nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and often to odors.

Applied Science in Modern Interiors: Marquis Intelligence Solutions

Marquis Intelligence achieves high indoor air quality through a combination of:

• controlled ventilation – supplying fresh air and extracting polluted air,
• filtration and purification – removing particles, microbes, odors, and other pollutants from the air,
• energy recovery, which is a prerequisite for energy efficiency and sustainability.

Air purification alone does not solve the problem of CO₂ in indoor air.

Likewise, ventilation without air purification loses its purpose, as outdoor air is polluted.

The United Nations pointed out that only 1% of people on the planet breathe healthy outdoor air, while the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that indoor air is 2–5 times more polluted than outdoor air.

Marquis Intelligence integrates CO₂ and VOC sensors into automated ventilation systems that maintain optimal air quality—discreetly, precisely, and energy-efficiently.

That is why the solution developed by Marquis Intelligence, based on scientific knowledge, is truly tailored to human needs.

SEE ALSO: Residential Ventilation by Marquis Intelligence

New Standards Confirm Marquis Intelligence Solutions

It is therefore no coincidence that modern European standards, such as the EPBD Directive (Energy Performance of Buildings Directive), increasingly impose requirements that buildings must not only be energy-efficient, but also ensure healthy indoor air.

Energy efficiency without ventilation and air quality control is no longer a sustainable concept—neither technically nor from a health perspective.

This development of standards confirms the direction in which Marquis Intelligence has been developing its solutions for years.

SEE ALSO: EPBD: Energy-Efficient Buildings Must Have Healthy Air

Pettenkofer’s Idea Is Still Alive Today

Pettenkofer’s message is perhaps more relevant today than ever.

The modern concept of healthy buildings confirms that buildings are not neutral environments in which we spend 90% of our lives. They actively affect our health. Joseph G. Allen of the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health summarizes this powerfully:

“The people who design and operate our buildings have a greater impact on our health than doctors.”

In a world where we spend most of our lives indoors, the way we ventilate and purify air becomes one of the most important preventive measures of modern society.

Health begins where air begins—and Marquis Intelligence is here to help.

Source

• Küçükhüseyin Ö. CO₂ monitoring and indoor air quality. REHVA Journal, February 2021.
• Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 12, 238–245 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02898030 
• Max Joseph von Pettenkofer – Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Joseph_von_Pettenkofer
• Joseph G. Allen (Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health) – Healthy Buildings: https://healthybuildings.hsph.harvard.edu/
• https://www.co2meter.com/blogs/news/carbon-dioxide-indoor-levels-chart

This text is part of the “Learn More About Air Through History and People” series from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
Document: MI-LAH-009.26 – Pettenkofer’s Number – CO₂ and Indoor Air Quality

The post Pettenkofer’s Number – CO₂ and Indoor Air Quality appeared first on Marquis Intelligence.

Modern smog, however, is not always visible, yet its presence still leaves a mark. Breathing in such air can cause a feeling of breathlessness and make respiration difficult, while long-term exposure increases the risk of serious illness.

The milder effects include irritation of the respiratory tract and worsening of asthma symptoms. More severe consequences, however, encompass chronic bronchitis, lasting damage to the lungs and heart, and even an increased risk of premature death.

Is Every Type of Smog the Same?

Not every smog is the same. It differs in composition and in how harmful it is to human health.
Still, the basic classification of smog includes two main types:

Classical – industrial smog was typical of the mid-20th century. It was a mixture of sulphur dioxide, smoke, and soot combined with moisture in the air – the smog that once choked the residents of London and New York.

Photochemical – the smog of modern society forms in today’s cities due to chemical reactions between nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and water vapour driven by UV radiation.

Regardless of its type, smog remains a symptom of the same problem – polluted, unhealthy air. If the air is not purified correctly, it enters your home. In this way, smog threatens your and your family’s health.

The Great Smog of London

In December 1952, a dense, dark-yellow fog descended upon London. It was a toxic mixture of soot, Sulphur Dioxide, and moisture. The city was almost paralysed. Buses moved with the help of lamps and pedestrians guiding them through the streets. Trains stopped. People lost their way. Over the course of five days, more than 12,000 people lost their lives.

The event became known as the Great Smog of London.
When Marquis Intelligence published an article about the Great Smog of London on LinkedIn, a witness to the event, Alan Gregory, reached out to them. Today, he is a fire investigator specializing in kitchen ventilation ducts. At that time, he was just a boy, but he still vividly remembers those days. Moved by the Marquis Intelligence post, he wrote the following comment:

“I was in London then – I was eight years old – and watched as a man with a lamp led the buses through the streets. We lived in a shared house that burned coal.”

Read more about this event in an earlier Marquis Intelligence blog:
The Great Smog of London (1952)

History Repeats Itself Because People Don’t Learn from It

Smog threatens health, yet we continue to breathe it in, hoping it will have no consequences.
How many more times must we face a historical wake-up call?

History, they say, is the teacher of life. But repetition is the mother of knowledge.
Unfortunately, we don’t learn from our own air pollution disasters – we wait for them to happen again.

The Great Smog of London was meant to be not a warning, but an alarm – a reminder that such a tragedy should never be repeated.
But it wasn’t. We didn’t learn the lesson.

Today, we can clearly understand the causes and consequences of air pollution, and yet smog still exists.
People are still not fully aware of how vital clean air truly is.

Marquis Intelligence is among those who don’t wait for history to repeat itself – it learns from it, connects science with practice, and develops solutions that prevent the mistakes of the past from returning.
In a world where smog threatens health, Marquis Intelligence shows that accurate intelligence lies in recognising responsibility.

Smog in New York – A Repeated Scenario

Just a year later, in late November 1953, New York experienced a similar episode of smog.
Thousands of people complained of breathing difficulties, and an increase in mortality was recorded.
Yet even that experience was not enough to raise public awareness.

In November 1966, the situation repeated itself – but in a much more severe form.
Over three days, from 23 to 25 November, a warm air mass and a temperature inversion trapped a mixture of Sulphur Dioxide and carbon monoxide over the city.
The smog became so dense that visibility dropped dramatically. Breathing was difficult. Between 169 and 400 people lost their lives as a result.

It was the most severe air pollution episode in New York’s history.
The response to this environmental crisis came a few years later, with the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970.

Modern Smog – The Same Problem, New Sources

Today, under favorable meteorological conditions, the causes of smog extend far beyond chimney smoke.
Air pollution now originates from a wide range of sources, including transportation, heating, agriculture, waste, plastics, and even everyday household devices.

Photochemical smog is particularly evident in cities such as Los Angeles, Mexico City, and Beijing.
It forms through chemical reactions between sunlight, exhaust gases, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
Although the air often appears “clean,” concentrations of PM2.5 particles and ozone frequently reach levels that seriously threaten human health.

The sources have changed, but the consequences remain the same – smog threatens health, and clean air remains a fundamental condition for life.

Outdoor vs Indoor Air – Which Is More Dangerous?

Although outdoor air is increasingly polluted, what we often forget is that indoor air can be two to five times more polluted than outdoor air, according to the EPA.
At the same time, only a small percentage of people worldwide have access to outdoor air of satisfactory quality.
In reality, the air outside your home is likely of poor quality, and it enters uninvited each time you open your windows and doors.

Every home contains numerous sources of indoor pollution.
Building materials, cleaning agents, furniture, paints, varnishes, and even microplastics all contribute to indoor air contamination.
Insufficient ventilation allows these pollutants to accumulate, remaining in the air we breathe daily.

Ultimately, we inhale this polluted indoor air while believing we are “safe within four walls.”
Yet within those same walls, the average person spends around 65% of their life.

Homes Breathe – But What?

Natural ventilation, by opening windows and doors, often allows outdoor pollutants such as PM particles, nitrogen oxides, and allergens to enter our living and working spaces.
Under certain conditions, this can even contribute to local smog formation.

That is why it is important to remember that smog harms health.
What your house “breathes” – you breathe too.

Modern ventilation solutions are no longer a luxury but a necessity.

Marquis Intelligence designs and develops ventilation systems for residential buildings.
These systems protect you from outdoor pollutants, recover heat, and save both energy and household costs.
Most importantly, they ensure healthy air for you and your family.
Marquis Intelligence’s air purification solutions restore the natural balance of the spaces we live in.

See also: Residential Ventilation by Marquis Intelligence
See also: Mini Case Study: Apartment Ventilation in Belgrade

Repetition Is the Mother of Knowledge

From London’s Great Smog, through New York’s in 1953 and 1966, to today’s smog in Beijing and Delhi – smog changes its form, but not its consequences.
Smog threatens health, and health has no price. So why should clean air be a luxury?

Marquis Intelligence continues to research, analyze, and develop advanced ventilation solutions.
In doing so, it connects the past, present, and future of air quality – understanding that human health and sustainable design can never be separated.

Sources:

1. The Great Smog of London, 1952 – UK National Archives
   https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-great-smog/
2. Margaritoff, M. (2021, updated 2023). The Story Of The New York City Smog Of 1966 That Killed 200 People. All That’s Interesting.
   https://allthatsinteresting.com/new-york-city-smog-1966
3. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Air Quality Trends and PM2.5 Standards
   https://www.epa.gov/air-trends
4. World Health Organization (WHO): Ambient (Outdoor) Air Pollution
   https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-pollution
5. California Department of Public Health (2020): Wildfire Smoke and Toxic Exposure in Firefighters
   https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/EPO/Pages/Wildfire-Smoke.aspx

This text is part of the series “Learn More About Air Through History and People” from the archives of Marquis Intelligence.
Document: MI-LAH-008.25 – Smog Threatens Health – Is There a Way Out?

The post Smog Threatens Health – Is There a Way Out? appeared first on Marquis Intelligence.

Tragedy in Vienna

At the First Obstetrics Clinic of the Vienna General Hospital, Ignaz Semmelweis began his work as an assistant on July 1, 1846. The clinic operated in two shifts that alternated continuously around the clock. One shift led by physicians and the other by midwives. The contrast between them soon revealed itself in devastating ways.

Mortality among mothers and newborns was dramatically unequal, for far more deaths occurred during the physicians’ shift, and the Encyclopaedia Britannica records that the death rate of mothers under their care reached as high as 25–30 per cent. That meant that nearly one in three women did not survive childbirth when doctors were in charge.

By contrast, mortality in the midwives’ shift remained significantly lower. This stark difference forced desperate women to wait outside the hospital gates during the physicians’ shift, hoping to endure until the midwives came on duty, since they knew their chances of survival were far greater once they entered under the care of the midwives.

How Ignaz Semmelweis Made His Discovery

The turning point came in May 1847. His friend Professor Kolletschke died from an infection after a wound during an autopsy.

Semmelweis realized that doctors carried “decay particles” from the morgue to the maternity ward. In June 1847, he introduced mandatory handwashing with a solution of chlorinated lime.

The results were dramatic. Mortality fell below 2%.

Ignaz Semmelweis Presents His Discoveries

Semmelweis’s observations began to spread through the works and lectures of his colleagues. On May 15, 1850, he personally presented his findings before the Vienna Medical Society (Gesellschaft der Ärzte in Wien) in an oral lecture.

Despite solid proof, many colleagues refused to accept that their own practices were killing patients.

Florence Nightingale, about whom we wrote earlier, also took pioneering steps in medical hygiene, ventilation, and the collection and use of statistical data.

See also: Clean Air Heals: Florence Nightingale

Resistance and Tragic End

The resistance to his discoveries was fierce. Many physicians perceived his conclusions as direct personal accusation.

In 1861, he published his book “The Aetiology, Concept, and Prophylaxis of Childbed Fever”. Yet despite the undeniable data, his work was met with ridicule and outright rejection.

In the summer of 1865, colleagues lured him under the pretext of a medical examination to a Viennese asylum for the mentally ill. Although some accounts suggest that fellow doctors themselves assaulted him before sending him there, official records tell a slightly different story.

According to the official version, guards in the asylum beat him, and the injury he sustained on his hand became infected. Two weeks later, on August 13, 1865, Ignaz Semmelweis died of sepsis. Tragically, the very disease he had fought against his entire life.

Lesson from the Past

Even Hippocrates had observed the link between disease and the air we breathe:
“Some diseases come from the way we live; others from the very air we inhale.”

In the 19th century, unwashed hands claimed countless lives, and the neglect of basic hygiene repeatedly turned into widespread tragedy.

Much later, in 1978, the death of Janet Parker, the last officially recognised victim of smallpox, infected by a virus that spread through a ventilation system, offered yet another grim warning.

See also: Janet Parker: Victim of a Deadly Virus from Ventilation

The story did not end with Semmelweis or with Janet Parker.

More recently, the world faced the COVID-19 pandemic, when the virus spread through the air and claimed millions of lives.

But was it inevitable? Could history lessons have prepared us better?

We should have already learned that air can be deadly, but it can also be life-saving.

What About Today?

History has a way of repeating itself.

Even today, mistakes still occur, and many people continue to resist the simple truth that air is the foundation of life, health, and success.

Marquis Intelligence has faced situations that echo the lessons of the past. A few years ago, the company received specifications for designing an additional air purification solution for a general hospital. The technical team at Marquis Intelligence approached the task with its trademark professionalism and precision, immediately noticing that both the neonatal ward and the morgue were connected to the same ventilation system, sharing the same air-handling unit.

The team instantly recalled the example of Ignaz Semmelweis and flagged this configuration as unacceptable. The project designer carefully reviewed the detailed expertise and reasoning provided by Marquis Intelligence and accepted it without objection. In doing so, a potentially tragic outcome was prevented.

Marquis Intelligence – Case from Practice

Today, we understand the critical importance of air quality for human health, including reproductive health and the success of in vitro fertilization. Over the decades, Marquis Intelligence has improved air quality in dozens of healthcare institutions across the region. Among them, one stands out for its importance even though it is not large in size – the private Special Gynaecology Hospital Ferona in Novi Sad.

This institution pays special attention to hygiene in every sense, and air hygiene is no exception. Although the clinic had already implemented the highest levels of filtration with HEPA filters in its ventilation systems, its leadership decided to bring in Marquis Intelligence for additional improvements. The reason was apparent: this hospital has built a reputation for successfully carrying out in vitro fertilisation procedures, and in that process, every single egg cell is precious.

We have already written about the importance of air quality for in vitro fertilization.

See also: The Stunning Impact of Air Pollution on In Vitro Fertilization Success

With a turnkey approach, Marquis Intelligence installed an advanced air treatment system using dielectric barrier discharge technology. The system included an automatic control loop to monitor air quality and adjust operations in real time. As a result, all odors from volatile organic compounds in outside air were eliminated.

Thanks to this approach and a comprehensive focus on hygiene, including air hygiene, the Ferona Specialized Gynecology Hospital strengthened its reputation and was recognized as the best private hospital in Serbia in the field of in vitro fertilization for 2024/2025. This award proves that outstanding results in reproductive health are impossible without carefully controlled air quality.

Cultural Heritage

Ignaz Semmelweis is remembered in culture as well. His statue stands in front of the Medical University in Budapest, and his bust is displayed at the Medical Faculty in Vienna. His life and work have been featured in documentaries, while educational series and animations portray him as a pioneer of hygiene and the doctor who saved countless lives.

History, Present, and Future

Ignaz Semmelweis showed how one pioneer can change the course of medicine. More than 160 years later, the lesson remains clear. Hygiene and air quality are essential for health.

Marquis Intelligence connects these historical lessons with modern expertise. The company is a pioneer in solving ventilation and air purification challenges in the region. Through its 4D Matrix, it provides tailor-made solutions and proves performance parameters in hospitals, clinics, and sterile zones. Today, Marquis Intelligence is a recognized brand for expert solutions that ensure safety, health, and sustainability.

Sources:
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Ignaz Semmelweis
Wikipedia: Ignaz Semmelweis
The British Journal of Psychiatry (Cambridge): Epidemics: wash your hands! The asylum delivery and violent death of Ignaz Semmelweis
Cambridge Univ. Press: Semmelweis and his predecessors
Semmelweis University Library: Years in Vienna
Dr Alanna Collen: 10% Human

This text is part of the “Learn More About Air Through History and People” series from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
Document: MI-LAH-007.25 – Ignaz Semmelweis: Saviour of Mothers and Newborns

The post Ignaz Semmelweis: Savior of Mothers and Newborns appeared first on Marquis Intelligence.

Smallpox is a deadly disease that claimed more than 300 million lives in the 20th century alone. By 1978, the world was on the brink of declaring its global eradication. However, that was when a tragedy occurred that left a deep mark on the history of public health.

Poorly Designed and Maintained Ventilation Systems

Janet Parker worked in the Anatomy Department at the University of Birmingham. Her department was located directly above the laboratory where the Variola major and Variola minor viruses were stored and studied. Despite the high level of scientific research, the safety standards in that laboratory did not follow the necessary protocols for handling highly pathogenic agents.

The investigation led by microbiologist R.A. Shooter showed that the virus most likely spread through a poorly maintained, and by all accounts poorly designed, ventilation system. Poorly designed? Probably. How else could it have been possible for a ventilation duct to physically connect such a dangerous laboratory with other parts of the building?

The Beginning of the End

On August 11, 1978, Janet Parker complained of headaches and muscle pain. At first, it was thought she had the flu or some mild infection. However, she was soon diagnosed with the most severe form of smallpox – Variola major.

She was quickly transferred to the Catherine de Barnes isolation hospital. Her body struggled severely with the infection – complications followed: pneumonia, kidney failure. On September 11, 1978, she died as the last recorded fatal case of smallpox.

Tragic Outcome – Three Victims

Just days before Janet Parker’s death, her father, Frederick Whitcomb, who had been quarantined due to close contact, suffered a heart attack. Shortly afterwards, Professor Henry Bedson, head of the laboratory, committed suicide out of a sense of guilt. In his farewell letter, Bedson wrote:
“I am sorry to have misplaced the trust of my friends and colleagues.”

Lessons We Did Not Learn Enough From

Shooter’s investigation revealed a series of failures. Inadequate monitoring. Unreported changes in protocols. Poorly maintained ventilation systems. Although the theory of airborne virus transmission was disputed at the time, the Janet Parker case was a severe warning.

Despite the tragedy, it was only in 1980 that smallpox was declared globally eradicated. However, this story still conveys a powerful message: ventilation systems are not merely a technical detail, but a critical safeguard of human lives.

History as the Teacher of Life

This is not just a fascinating and tragic story from the past. It shows us that microbiological safety depends on the air around us, and that every mistake in ventilation can have serious, even fatal, consequences.

We have already written about other historical events and figures involved in them, and lessons could also be drawn from those cases to avoid poor outcomes in the future.

SEE ALSO: Florence Nightingale: Fresh Air Helps Healing
SEE ALSO: The Great Smog of London (1952): Lessons from the Past

Ventilation in the COVID-19 Pandemic: Familiar Problems

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the world faced the same challenges once again. At first, evidence of airborne transmission of the coronavirus was ignored. Although scientific studies (such as those of Professor Lidia Morawska) clearly pointed to aerosol transmission, many institutions did not recognize the importance of ventilation – until it was too late.

This is yet another example of history’s mistakes repeating themselves, and confirmation that air quality experts must be involved in shaping public health policies.

Technical Solutions Ahead of Their Time

For more than three decades, Marquis Intelligence has been engaged in designing and implementing ventilation and air purification systems, guided by a strong ethical compass and consistent business policy.

Throughout its decades of existence, the Marquis Intelligence team has been involved in numerous projects for hospitals in the country and abroad. Among the medical institutions for which it contributed air purification solutions was the Emergency Center of Vojvodina, Novi Sad. During the COVID-19 pandemic, this facility was converted into a COVID-19 hospital. According to the then Minister of Health, there were no infections among employees in that hospital, despite a lack of sufficient protective equipment.

It turned out that the method of air purification using dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) on silver-coated tubes, as well as additional VIROXX 1000 air sterilization devices with medical certification, delivered measurable results. Although the pandemic could not have been foreseen at the time of installation, the designers, with technical support from Marquis Intelligence, implemented solutions that became crucial for safety.

Marquis Intelligence carried out this project with the support of its now two-decade-long German partner.

SEE ALSO: Partner par excellence – Who and Why

Professional Ethics and Responsibility

As a leading company in the field of ventilation and air purification, Marquis Intelligence not only implements existing systems but also develops specific technical solutions with guaranteed performance.

Our team of engineers, microbiologists, and designers has repeatedly, in line with the company’s business policy and moral values, pointed out shortcomings in projects from large design firms – especially when such solutions involved questionable ventilation concepts in hospitals.

In one such case, Marquis Intelligence received a request for a ventilation solution in a large hospital, where an AHU unit was planned to serve both a morgue and a neonatal ward – posing a serious health risk to the most vulnerable patients. This was immediately flagged.

Air is a Matter of Safety

Precisely because of such cases, involving experts in airflow and microbiological safety is not a matter of prestige, but of necessity. A ventilation system must be designed with a complete understanding of risks. Not as an afterthought at the end of a construction project.

After all, the question is not if, but when the next pandemic will occur, as we have already written before.

SEE ALSO: A New Pandemic – Not If, But When

Marquis Intelligence remains committed to creating a safe, healthy, and sustainable environment. How? Through high-level technical solutions and open action in favour of public health.

Sources:

• BBC na srpskom: Smrt Dženet Parker
• Wikipedia: 1978 smallpox outbreak in the United Kingdom
• BBC na srpskom: Korona virus i zdravlje

This text is part of the series “Learn More About Air Through History and People” from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
Document:
MI-LAH-006.25 – Janet Parker: Victim of a Deadly Virus from Ventilation

The post Janet Parker: Victim of a Deadly Virus from Ventilation appeared first on Marquis Intelligence.

When he announced his discovery, his mother reportedly told him:

“What a pity. Now everyone will remember you for that wreck.”

And she was right. The Titanic became his lifelong shadow. Ballard has stated in numerous interviews that the Titanic brought him worldwide fame. However, his true contributions to science -exploring ocean trenches, hydrothermal vents, and deep-sea technology – were often overshadowed by the popularity of that single expedition. He later founded the Institute for Exploration and dedicated himself to education and inspiring youth to pursue oceanography.

The Titanic Wreck as an Unusual Ecosystem

Few people know that the Titanic Wreck is now home to a unique ecosystem. Most famously, the bacterium Halomonas titanicae, discovered in 2010, slowly “eats” the ship’s metal structure, forming so-called rusticles, stalactite-like rust formations.

But that’s not all. Scientists have recorded over 24 different species of marine life inhabiting the wreck, including fish, crabs, corals, and bioluminescent sea cucumbers. The Titanic has become an artificial reef at the bottom of the ocean. It now serves as a living underwater lab for studying adaptation and biodiversity in extreme deep-sea environments.

Scientists estimate that the Titanic Wreck could fully disappear between 2030 and 2037 due to this microbial activity. Along with it, physical evidence of integrated ventilation and cooling systems from this grand technical marvel, cloaked in mystery and luxury, may vanish too.

The Funnel Controversy

The Titanic had four enormous funnels. Three of them had a practical role in expelling boiler gases, belching out thick black smoke. The fourth, long believed to be purely decorative, was said to serve only aesthetic purposes.

But is that really the case? A funnel of that size just for looks?

Some findings suggest it may have had a true ventilation function—removing heat, steam, and odors from the complex kitchens that prepared thousands of luxurious meals each day.

Ventilation: The Forgotten Dimension of Luxury

The Titanic’s ventilation system was sophisticated for its time:

• Sirocco fans were used to move air, including massive 35-inch models (around 90 cm in diameter). Warm air was distributed through insulated ducts and ventilation chambers.
• Fans of various sizes (10″, 20″, 30″, 35″) served both intake and exhaust functions. Ductwork was carefully oriented to prevent recirculation of expelled air. The system featured well-planned layouts and air inlets protected from rain and debris by specially shaped covers and mesh screens.
• Some ventilation systems on the Titanic had upgraded ductwork compared to its twin ship, the Olympic, from the same class.

All of this indicates that air management was taken seriously, not only in terms of interior luxury but also in terms of hygiene and functionality. In an era without HVAC technology, Titanic engineers relied on natural laws of airflow and pressure to provide passengers with the best possible onboard experience.

Luxury with Bonus Ions

In this context, it’s worth mentioning a small but symbolic item: a beautifully crafted wrought-iron ventilation grille recovered from the Titanic. Now preserved in the National Museum in Liverpool, it serves as a historical artifact and a reminder that ventilation was a discreet but opulent aspect of early 20th-century luxury.

To our knowledge, no one has written about this before—but it’s highly likely that the Titanic’s luxury ventilation system offered passengers an extra, unintended benefit. The air drawn in through the front deck was clean and fresh. Since it came directly from above the sunlit and wave-swept ocean surface, it was naturally rich in ions.

Unintentionally, this technical marvel provided ion-enriched fresh air, subtly enhancing the sense of freshness and comfort for its passengers.

Cooling on the Titanic?

Another impressive aspect of the Titanic’s engineering was its refrigeration system. It spanned five rooms with a total volume of about 1,450 m³. These chambers were used to store meat, dairy, fruit, vegetables, fish, and beer.

• The cooling system used an ammonia cycle with multiple compressors and water-cooled condensers.
• Pipes were embedded in walls and floors, and the system featured separate ventilation lines to exhaust hot air and steam.
• Additional fans circulated cool air inside individual chambers.

In modern terms, this was a combined HVAC and cold-chain system for maritime use, which remains rare even today. Back in 1912, the Titanic had a fully developed and zoned system for air distribution and cooling. This system is equivalent to the standard now used in luxury hotels and hospitals.

Lessons for Today

Titanic still offers relevant lessons:

• Air quality is a fundamental part of luxury, safety, and comfort.
• Decorative or artistic elements may conceal essential technical functions, such as the ventilation grille recovered from the depths.
• Understanding airflow and spatial dynamics is just as important as visual design.

Do we truly learn from past events? Has Titanic taught us something, or do we merely speak of it without applying its lessons? History is replete with examples that highlight the importance of clean air. We’ve explored some of them before.

SEE ALSO: The Great Smog of London (1952): Lessons from the Past
SEE ALSO: Clean Air Helps Healing: Florence Nightingale

The Luxurious Freshness of Clean Air—Now in Your Own Home

Do you believe ventilation is a luxury, or is it a luxury to risk your health without proper ventilation and air purification?

At Marquis Intelligence, we believe that healthy air is a fundamental human right and should be accessible to everyone.
Contact us to discover how Marquis Intelligence can enhance your home, office, or other spaces with optimal ventilation, heat recovery, and advanced air purification.

If you wish to experience discreet yet luxurious freshness in your own home, Marquis Intelligence is here to make it possible.
Please fill out the contact form on our website, and our team will get in touch with a solution tailored to your needs.

The artical is availble in the Serbian language: 40 godina od otkrića olupine Titanika

Sources

• • https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/the-case-for-titanics-electric-fan-ventilator-with-an-angled-duct-into-the-vent-trunk.html
  • https://titanic-cad-plans.website/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Vent-screen-article.pdf
  • https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/bacteria-are-eating-the-titanic
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halomonas_titanicae
  • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfuzTmkXjk8
  • https://science.gc.ca/site/science/en/blogs/older-blogs/below-waterline-gsc-bio/five-ways-titanic-shipwreck-advanced-submarine-science
  • https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/refrigerating-installation.html
  • https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/artifact/ventilation-grille-titanic-wreck-site
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wreck_of_the_Titanic

This text is part of the “Learn About the Air Through History & People” series from the Marquis Intelligence archive.

Document:MI-LAH-005.25 – 40 Years Since the Discovery of the Titanic Wreck

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Werner Schröder, born on July 31, 1931, was the founder of Bioclimatic GmbH, Germany. An engineer by vocation. A designer and innovator by nature and interest. A pioneer in the field of bipolar air ionisation based on Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD). His work and his vision left an indelible mark. In the industry, in spaces, but also in people.

Career beginnings

At the start of his career, he worked at the Varta battery factory. As a young engineer, he also participated in the construction and launch of a battery production plant in Peć, Kosovo. In the early 1970s, he began developing the prototypes of devices for bipolar air ionisation. The idea first started in his home workspace.

Determined and courageous, Werner Schröder founded Bioclimatic GmbH on July 4, 1978, in the small town of Bad Nenndorf, Germany. A city once visited for treatment by Jérôme Bonaparte, Napoleon Bonaparte’s youngest brother. Known for its thermal springs, sulfur mud baths, and the rare Süntele beech avenue, a native tree species whose low-growing branches take root when touching the ground, much like how DBD technology, developed by Schröder, took root in this very location and spread around the world.

Today, we know that clean, high-quality air plays a crucial role in promoting healing. Werner Schröder understood this. And he went even further. He brought the natural air purification process indoors. His development of DBD technology, which mimics nature’s ionisation processes, made indoor spaces safer and healthier.

A global innovation

His mission didn’t stop there. In the early 1990s, he was granted a worldwide patent for the purification of exhaust air using photochemical and catalytic oxidation.

Bioclimatic GmbH is today the only DBD manufacturer that also includes silver-plated tubes for bipolar air ionization in its product portfolio, proving its technical depth and innovation capacity.

SEE ALSO: Bipolar air ionization: Similarities between DBD and NP technologies

SEE ALSO: Bipolar Air Ionisation – First Page of Google

SEE ALSO: FAQ – Bipolar Air Ionization

Even during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the market was flooded with unverified solutions and marketing claims, Bioclimatic remained committed to science and evidence. The company maintained its leadership position.

Legacy and continuity

Today, the company is led by his successor Marion Krome, who continues what her father started, with the same dedication and integrity. Throughout his life, Werner Schröder had the selfless support of his wife, Ursula, and he is remembered in the family circle by his second daughter, Silke Goldstein, as well as many grandchildren and great-grandchildren.

Werner Schröder was one of the rare people who would listen, think, and then act. He knew how to pick up the phone and call our team in Serbia, asking, above all, Gordana, whom he deeply respected, “Gordana, what would you do if you were in my place?“ That was mutual respect, from day one.

Oldest Bioclimatic Partner

Intelligence is today the longest-standing partner of Bioclimatic. The collaboration extends beyond technical matters—it is strategic and visionary in nature. United by a shared mission: that clean air is not a luxury but a basic human need.

SEE ALSO: Partner par excellence – who and why

SEE ALSO: Brit List Award for Best Technical Solution

A vision that breathes on

In the days when we commemorate his birthday, we do not speak of an end—but of a legacy that lives on. His work lives in every space where people breathe more easily.

As Werner Schröder used to say: “Fresh air in your rooms is like miniature thunderstorms!”

Sources:

• Bioclimatic GmbH – About Us
• Kompany.com – Bioclimatic GmbH incorporation
• Nenndorf.de – History of Bad Nenndorf
• Outdooractive.com – Schlösschen in Bad Nenndorf
• Archiv der IHK Niedersachsen

This text is part of the “Learn About the Air Through History & People” series from the Marquis Intelligence archive.
Document: MI-LAH-004.25 – Werner Schröder – Visionary of Clean Air

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